Resilience is shaped by relationships, meaning making & resourcefulness, not just mental toughness.
Healing starts when we shift from asking, “What’s wrong with you?” to “What’s helped you stay strong?”
Resilience theory must account for culture, context & equity or risk reinforcing harmful individualistic ideals.
As a trauma therapist, I’ve witnessed the profound ways abuse, heartbreak, tragedy, and grief can shatter a person’s sense of self.
Many clients arrive in my office carrying the weight of trauma that has altered their bodies, minds, and lives.
But occasionally, I meet someone who has lived through something just as devastating; yet somehow, they emerged differently. These individuals still feel the emotional pain, but the experience didn’t rupture their core. Their sense of safety, worth, and identity remained intact.
This remarkable capacity to move through, adapt, recover, and even grow in the face of adversity is what we call resilience. And as therapists and coaches, resilience theory is worth understanding deeply.
Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our five positive psychology tools for free. These engaging, science-based exercises will help you effectively deal with difficult circumstances and give you the tools to improve the resilience of your clients, students, or employees.
While most definitions of resilience theory highlight the interplay between adversity and positive adaptation, there’s no universal agreement on how to define or measure it, making consistent application across research and practice difficult (Molina-García et al., 2021).
Earlier theories framed resilience as a fixed trait. We now know, however, that resilience is a dynamic process that shifts with time and context.
Core components of resilience
Through decades of research, five categories have emerged that help us understand the core components of resilience theory (Sisto et al., 2019). Each category highlights a different way humans adapt, recover, and grow in the face of adversity.
Ability to recover
This is the capacity to return to psychological balance after distress. Recovery doesn’t mean forgetting or ignoring pain. It means integrating the experience and moving forward without being overtaken by it.
Type of functioning that characterizes the individual
Some people possess enduring personality traits or adaptive functioning styles, like optimism, cognitive flexibility, or grit, that allow them to stay psychologically well even in chaos. These traits can be innate but are also shaped by experience and environment.
Capacity to bounce back
This refers to the tendency to rebound after a setback and shift direction toward growth. It’s moving beyond surviving into transforming the experience into something that strengthens self-efficacy and hope.
Dynamic process evolving over time
Resilience unfolds in motion. It changes with development, context, relationships, and the interplay between internal and external protective factors. It’s shaped by what we go through and how we grow through it.
Positive adaptation to life conditions
At its heart, resilience is about adapting well. It’s the ability to engage with life, regulate emotions, and make meaning, even when facing chronic stress, trauma, or change.
Taking these categories together, we can define emotional resilience as the dynamic ability to stay oriented toward your deeper purpose and sense of self, even while navigating adversity. It involves recovering from disruption, adapting to change, and bouncing back with insight, often resulting in a renewed or strengthened life path (Sisto et al., 2019).
Foundational Resilience Theories & Models
Why do some individuals thrive despite adversity while others struggle to cope?
Many therapists take that question a step further: What life experiences or personality characteristics predispose some individuals to sail through challenges while others develop acute stress or post-traumatic stress disorder?
These foundational frameworks laid the groundwork for how we define emotional resilience as a process that unfolds across time, relationships, and systems of support (Southwick et al., 2014).
Resilience theory by Norman Garmezy
The father of modern resilience research was among the first to study children who succeeded despite growing up in high-risk environments, such as those with parental mental illness or poverty.
His research shifted the focus from pathology to protective factors. His research explored the traits, relationships, and environments that helped kids withstand chronic stress (Masten & Cicchetti, 2012).
One of my favorite aspects of Garmezy’s work is that he helped move psychology away from asking, “What’s wrong with you?” to asking, “What’s helping you stay strong?”
His work introduced the idea that resilience could be studied empirically, making space for a science of strength within adversity.
Ann Masten’s resilience theory
Ann Masten expanded on Garmezy’s work and coined the phrase “ordinary magic” to describe resilience.
Masten (2014) showed that resilience is not rare or extraordinary. On the contrary, it’s built from everyday systems of support, such as caregiving relationships, emotional regulation, and community stability.
Her work reframed resilience theory as something that can be nurtured rather than something you’re born with. This is valuable information for us therapists and coaches, who can now create resilience interventions that can empower clients, parents, and families.
Masten’s resilience theory invites us to see resilience not as a superpower, but as a very human capacity for adaptation.
Resilience trajectory by George Bonanno
George Bonanno defines emotional resilience as a stable trajectory of healthy functioning after a highly adverse event.
His empirical work has shown that resilience is common and can be precisely mapped over time through longitudinal research. He distinguishes between different patterns of adaptation, such as minimal-impact resilience, delayed recovery, and chronic dysfunction (Bonanno & Burton, 2013).
He also focuses on regulatory flexibility as a key component. This model emphasizes that resilience is situational, measurable, and shaped by a person’s ability to adapt their coping strategies in real time (Bonanno & Burton, 2013).
Integrated recovery model by Rachel Yehuda
The integrated recovery model developed by Rachel Yehuda et al. (2013) challenges the traditional dichotomy between resilience and psychopathology. Her research demonstrates that individuals can be both resilient and symptomatic, especially in cases of post-traumatic stress disorder.
Yehuda views resilience as a process of consciously moving forward with insight and meaning, even when symptoms persist. She describes this form of resilience as a reintegration of the self.
This state is marked by ongoing commitment and adaptation. Her model encourages us to view resilience as a dynamic process of post-traumatic growth that honors both suffering and strength.
Download 5 Free Positive Psychology Tools
Start thriving today with 5 free tools grounded in the science of positive psychology.
Download Tools
8 Factors Influencing Resilience
Resilience is shaped by internal and external forces. This can range from implementing therapeutic interventions at a more individual level, such as journaling, neuroplasticity exercises, and daily reflection practices (Lohner & Aprea, 2021), to cultivating deeper social and cultural changes at the systemic level (Southwick et al., 2014).
Across disciplines and populations, the following key factors have consistently emerged as influential in determining our capacity to adapt and grow through adversity (Lohner & Aprea, 2021; Southwick et al., 2014).
Neuroplasticity and biology
Resilience is rooted in neuroplasticity and biology. While the brain and body play a role in trauma response, it’s not destiny. Practices like journaling, gratitude, and expressive writing can rewire neural pathways to support emotional healing.
Emotion regulation
Resilient individuals know how to pivot when they run into obstacles. They adapt their strategies when stuck. As therapists, we can strengthen this flexibility through self-reflection, emotional awareness, and problem-solving tools.
Cognitive framing
Resilience often means reframing adversity as transformation instead of defeat. Finding meaning in pain allows clients to integrate trauma into their story with insight rather than shame.
Motivation mastery
Resilient people persist. They view setbacks as part of the learning curve that helps them build self-efficacy and agency each time they try again.
Future vision Hope anchors resilience. It’s the belief that life can still hold meaning and that our actions today can shape a better tomorrow even during hardship.
Social capital
Resilience thrives in connection. Family, friends, mentors, and community networks all increase our capacity to adapt and recover.
Culture and equity
Culture shapes how we understand and respond to adversity. Effective interventions honor collective healing practices. Additionally, housing, safety, and health care lay the foundation for recovery. Inequity adds chronic strain no amount of inner strength can undo alone.
Developmental timing and preparation
Our stage of life matters when adversity strikes. Age and life experience relate to our level of preparation and protection against challenges. Resilience strategies must, therefore, be tailored to life stages.
Applying Resilience Theory in Practice
Resilience theory offers clinicians a profound shift, from treating symptoms to cultivating strengths, from focusing on what’s broken to channeling what’s already working.
The way I see it, instead of asking, “what is wrong?” these models encourage us to ask, “what is possible?” This reorientation invites both therapist and client to explore the qualities that have sustained them through hardship and to build on those strengths with intention.
We can apply resilience theory in our practices in a variety of ways. First, start with a collaborative assessment or use resilience scales to measure a client’s strengths, skills, and support systems, identifying both internal assets and external resources (Zimmerman et al., 2013).
From there, work with clients to set goals that build on their capacities and honor their autonomy and self-trust. The interventions should focus on enhancing what already exists, such as client emotional insight, coping strategies, relational skills, self-efficacy, and cognitive flexibility (Social Work Test Prep, 2023).
For more insight on cultivating resilience, we recommend this TED Talk: The Three Secrets of Resilient People.
The three secrets of resilient people - Lucy Hone
Resilience Across Domains
Emotional resilience lives and breathes in different systems and contexts. It looks different depending on the resources available, the stressors faced, and the values that guide each group. It’s important to zoom out from the individual and recognize how resilience manifests in relationships, systems, and collective identities.
By understanding resilience across domains, we gain a fuller picture of what helps people rise through hardship.
Family resilience
Family resilience is the ability of a family system to adapt, connect, and recover after hardship by drawing on shared values, communication, and cohesion (Walsh, 2007).
Shame resilience Shame resilience is a process of moving through shame with self-awareness, empathy, and connection, allowing individuals to grow rather than collapse under self-judgment (Brown, 2006).
Community resilience
Community resilience refers to the collective ability of resilient communities to respond to and recover from disruptions while maintaining essential functions and cohesion (FEMA, 2021).
Organizational resilience
This is an organization’s capacity to withstand disruptions, adapt quickly, and continue functioning. Organizational resilience is often tied to leadership, culture, and communication (Walsh College, 2023).
Cultural resilience
Cultural resilience is the ability of cultural groups to sustain identity, practices, and values in the face of adversity, ensuring a sense of continuity and meaning (Ungar, 2012).
Educational resilience
Educational resilience is a student’s ability to succeed academically despite exposure to significant adversity. Educational resilience is often supported by strong relationships and personal motivation (Martinez & Dukes, 2020).
Ecological resilience
Ecological resilience is an ecosystem’s ability to recover from environmental disturbances while maintaining its core structure and function (Holling, 1973).
Take a moment to reflect on domains where you have seen resilience. Communities uniting following a flood, a family adjusting to the sudden loss of a parent, or a student maintaining excellent grades amid campus riots are examples of resilience across domains.
When we expand our lens, we begin to see resilience all over, within ourselves, in families that hold each other up, communities that rebuild together, and cultures that carry strength across generations.
Having worked with complex trauma survivors now for over 15 years, I have noticed that the way clients interpret their experiences can either intensify their suffering or create space for healing.
In this context, I have used Seligman’s (2006) 3Ps model as a framework to help certain clients see the lenses through which their trauma is distorting their perceptions and hindering resilience.
According to Seligman (2006), personalization is the belief that we are entirely to blame for what happened. Pervasiveness is the sense that trauma has tainted every part of our lives. And permanence is the fear that the pain will never end.
While these beliefs are common in trauma survivors, they are also malleable. Seligman’s research highlights that when we learn to reframe these distorted interpretations, we increase our ability to recover, rebuild, and grow.
In trauma-informed therapy, helping clients examine these painful narratives and dysfunctional patterns becomes a clinical tool for restoring self-trust (Copley, 2023).
Here’s how I break it down using Seligman’s approach.
If a client believes it is their fault a trauma happened to them (personalization), I help them explore context, clarify responsibility, and introduce self-compassion to both the memory and the sensory emotion of the moment.
When my client feels like their trauma defines every aspect of life (pervasiveness), I work with them on reclaiming areas of competence, connection, and joy to bring perspective and evidence of their ability to overcome and thrive.
When pain feels like a constant state (permanence), my clients and I explore lived and clinical evidence that trauma symptoms will change with time, care, intention, and support.
Instead of asking, “What’s wrong with me?” my clients are invited to ask, “What happened to me, and how can I experience it differently, both intellectually and emotionally?”
This shift from pathology to possibility is at the heart of resilience.
Positive Psychology & Resilience Research
I have seen clients endure devastating experiences as a trauma therapist. Nevertheless, somehow, many still find a way to move forward with openness and intention. New studies in positive psychology and resilience research help us understand why.
We now know that resilience is about having the ability to prioritize emotions and wellbeing, access and grow internal strengths like emotional regulation and meaning making, and nurture external support like community and connection (Kalisch et al., 2021).
Some of the most promising findings in recent research include the following:
Positive emotions lay the foundation for long-term wellbeing by expanding our capacity to think clearly, solve problems, and build supportive relationships (Holmedal Byrne & Gustafsson, 2024).
Meaning and time perspective are qualities possessed by resilient individuals. Those who hold a sense of purpose and a future-focused mindset tend to report higher resilience and greater life satisfaction (Molina-García et al., 2021).
Interventions rooted in positive psychology, like self-compassion and relational repair, have been shown to increase resilience and improve mental health, even among individuals with severe psychological distress (Holmedal Byrne & Gustafsson, 2024).
Finally, resilient individuals prioritize resourcefulness over mental toughness. According to Bonanno and Westphal (2024), resilient individuals don’t just power through hardship; they know how to seek help.
Our job as therapists is to help clients reconnect with these innate capacities. From this research, we can learn how to reduce emotional pain and restore hope, efficacy, resilience, and optimism (HERO).
17 Tools To Build Resilience and Coping Skills
Empower others with the skills to manage and learn from inevitable life challenges using these 17 Resilience & Coping Exercises [PDF], so you can increase their ability to thrive.
While resilience theory can be a powerful framework for healing, it’s not without controversy. Some critics argue that resilience theory risks becoming more harmful than helpful.
Mahdiani and Ungar (2021) noted the concern that resilience theory can reinforce individualism over context.
Focusing on personal traits like grit or optimism can obscure the real impact of social conditions, support systems, and power dynamics. This framing can also feed into neoliberal ideologies, subtly suggesting that if someone can’t bounce back, they simply haven’t tried hard enough. This also raises concerns of absolving systems of their responsibility to support healing and equity (Mahdiani & Ungar, 2021).
There’s also a cultural bias baked into many definitions of resilience. Much of the research stems from individualistic models of coping and recovery, leaving out collectivist or spiritual understandings that are central to resilience in many communities.
Finally, resilience theory can be misused. Even as therapists, we can idealize it to the point where struggle is pathologized and survival is romanticized. Not all forms of adaptation are healthy. And if you ask me, sometimes what we call resilience is actually a trauma response or a form of endurance that silences real and valid suffering.
More Resources From PositivePsychology.com
Integrating resilience theory into your work can improve successful client outcomes in therapy when used appropriately. If you’re ready to integrate resilience skills into your life, we have several tools available to support that journey.
For those working on building resilience, we offer a variety of evidence-based tools for free. These resilience activities help you not only cope, but also flourish in adversity.
Resources include:
Resilience and Change Worksheet
A guided reflection tool that helps clients identify what strengths, supports, and wisdom helped them adapt during a life transition, reminding them that they’ve done hard things before, and they can again.
Growing Stronger From Trauma This worksheet invites clients to explore how even painful experiences can lead to insight, strength, and post-traumatic growth without minimizing the pain that came first.
Recommended reading
Resilience in the Workplace: This article offers strategies to enhance adaptability, stress management, and a positive mindset, which are crucial for fostering both individual and organizational resilience.
23 Resilience-Building Activities & Exercises for Adults: This article contains a practical collection of interactive, age-appropriate resilience-building exercises for both kids and adults, including role-play, games, and reflective prompts.
As therapists, we must honor resilience without weaponizing it. By being both trauma informed and culturally aware, we can consider the systems that require people to be resilient in the first place and provide appropriate care as needed.
Remember, clients are the experts of their own experience, and we hold space for their voice and unique path forward.
Rather than pathologizing their pain, we reframe challenges as portals for growth, using the quest for self-knowledge and meaningful connection to anchor transformation (Copley, 2023).
Whether in clinical settings or community development, resilience theory and work is about helping clients return to themselves with strength, clarity, and a renewed sense of possibility.
Coping refers to the specific strategies we use in the moment to manage stress, while resilience is the broader capacity to adapt, recover, and grow over time. Think of coping as a single step and resilience as the journey (Bonanno & Burton, 2013).
Can resilience be learned or strengthened?
Yes, resilience is a dynamic process shaped by our experiences, relationships, and intentional practices. With the right support, we can build the skills and mindset that strengthen resilience over time (Masten, 2014).
Can resilience theory help with trauma recovery?
Yes, resilience theory reframes trauma recovery by emphasizing strengths, protective factors, and the capacity for adaptation. It helps therapists and clients focus not just on what went wrong, but on what can support healing and post-traumatic growth (Kalisch et al., 2021).
What’s the difference between resilience and post-traumatic growth?
Resilience is about adapting in a meaningful way and returning to a healthy baseline after hardship. Post-traumatic growth goes beyond that. It involves transformation and finding new purpose, deeper connection, or personal strength as a result of what was endured (Seligman, 2006).
References
Bonanno, G. A., & Burton, C. L. (2013). Regulatory flexibility: An individual differences perspective on coping and emotion regulation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(6), 591–612. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613504116
Bonanno, G. A., & Westphal, M. (2024). The three axioms of resilience. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 37(5), 717–723. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.23071
Brown, B. (2006). Shame resilience theory: A grounded theory study on women and shame. Families in Society, 87(1), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1606/1044-3894.3483
Copley, L. A. (2023). Loving you is hurting me: A new approach to healing trauma bonds and creating authentic connection. Hachette/Balance.
Holmedal Byrne, K., & Gustafsson, B. M. (2024). Implementation study of “Building Resilience,” including positive psychology interventions and positive emotion regulation training in patients with severe mental illness in an adult outpatient psychiatric mental health setting: An exploratory clinical trial. Behavior Modification, 48(5–6), 537–560. https://doi.org/10.1177/01454455241269842
Kalisch, R., Köber, G., Binder, H., Ahrens, K. F., Basten, U., Chmitorz, A., Choi, K. W., Fiebach, C. J., Goldbach, N., Neumann, R. J., Kampa, M., Kollmann, B, Lieb, K., Plichta, M. M., Reif, A., Schick, A., Sebastian, A., Walter, H., Wessa, M., … & Engen, H. (2021). The frequent stressor and mental health monitoring-paradigm: A proposal for the operationalization and measurement of resilience and the identification of resilience processes in longitudinal observational studies. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 710493. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.710493
Lohner, M. S., & Aprea, C. (2021). The resilience journal: Exploring the potential of journal interventions to promote resilience in university students. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 702683. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.702683
Martinez, R., & Dukes, R. (2020). Resilience in education: Factors supporting academic success among at-risk students. Educational Researcher, 49(4), 263–274.
Masten, A. S. (2014). Ordinary magic: Resilience in development. Guilford Press.
Masten, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. (Eds.). (2012). Risk and resilience in development and psychopathology: The legacy of Norman Garmezy. Development and Psychopathology, 24(2), 333–334. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579412000016
Molina-García, L., Castillo, I., & Queralt, A. (2021). Cross-sectional study of resilience, positivity and coping strategies as predictors of engagement-burnout in undergraduate students: Implications for prevention and treatment in mental well-being. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, Article 596453. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.596453
Seligman, M. E. P. (2006). Learned optimism: How to change your mind and your life. Vintage Books.
Sisto, A., Vicinanza, F., Campanozzi, L. L., Ricci, G., Tartaglini, D., & Tambone, V. (2019). Towards a transversal definition of psychological resilience: A literature review. Medicina, 55(11), 745. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina55110745
Southwick, S. M., Bonanno, G. A., Masten, A. S., Panter-Brick, C., & Yehuda, R. (2014). Resilience definitions, theory, and challenges: Interdisciplinary perspectives. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5(1), Article 25338. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25338
Ungar, M. (2012). Social ecologies and their contribution to resilience. In M. Ungar (Ed.), The social ecology of resilience (pp. 13–32). Springer.
Yehuda, R., Daskalakis, N. P., Desarnaud, F., Makotkine, I., Lehrner, A. L., & Koch, E. (2013). Epigenetic biomarkers as predictors and correlates of symptom improvement following psychotherapy in combat veterans with PTSD. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 4, Article 118. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00118
Zimmerman, M. A., Stoddard, S. A., Eisman, A. B., Caldwell, C. H., Aiyer, S. M., & Miller, A. (2013). Adolescent resilience: Promotive factors that inform prevention. Child Development Perspectives, 7(4), 215–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12042
About the author
Laura Copley, Ph.D. offers her insight on healing complex trauma as a therapist, podcast host of "Tough Love with Dr. Laura Copley", and at speaking engagements around the world. Recently, she released her first book called "Loving You is Hurting Me," a self-improvement book on trauma bonding that blends storytelling, psychoeducation, and powerful activities and strategies that lead to Post-Traumatic Growth.
How useful was this article to you?
Not useful at all
Very useful
Share this article:
Article feedback
Comments
What our readers think
Jacqui Reed
on March 18, 2025 at 23:53
I’m part of a community threatened by wildfire every summer now. Community and individual resilience has never been more important. We are all trying to increase our skills and resources in readiness, and this article and the links and references are wonderfully useful and accessibly written for a lay person like myself. Thanks.
This article seems very interesting and explains a lot of theory. For my PhD, I am seeking a suggestion regarding which theory or model would be particularly fit for a topic that addresses individual and organisational resilience to adapt in a disrupted labor market.
intresting PhD topic! Here are a few suggestions:
– Resilience Theory: Explores how individuals and organizations withstand and adapt to adversity, offering insights into bouncing back from labor market challenges.
– Psychological Capital (PsyCap) Theory: Investigates the role of an individual’s positive psychological state (hope, efficacy, resilience, optimism) in fostering adaptability and resilience.
I hope this helps and all the best with your research 🙂
Warm regards,
Julia | Community Manager
As a trauma therapist, I’ve witnessed the profound ways abuse, heartbreak, tragedy, and grief can shatter a person’s sense of self.
Why do some individuals thrive despite adversity while others struggle to cope?
Resilience theory offers clinicians a profound shift, from treating symptoms to cultivating strengths, from focusing on what’s broken to channeling what’s already working.
I have seen clients endure devastating experiences as a trauma therapist. Nevertheless, somehow, many still find a way to move forward with openness and intention. New studies in positive psychology and resilience research help us understand why.
What our readers think
I’m part of a community threatened by wildfire every summer now. Community and individual resilience has never been more important. We are all trying to increase our skills and resources in readiness, and this article and the links and references are wonderfully useful and accessibly written for a lay person like myself. Thanks.
This article seems very interesting and explains a lot of theory. For my PhD, I am seeking a suggestion regarding which theory or model would be particularly fit for a topic that addresses individual and organisational resilience to adapt in a disrupted labor market.
Hi Ruhul,
intresting PhD topic! Here are a few suggestions:
– Resilience Theory: Explores how individuals and organizations withstand and adapt to adversity, offering insights into bouncing back from labor market challenges.
– Psychological Capital (PsyCap) Theory: Investigates the role of an individual’s positive psychological state (hope, efficacy, resilience, optimism) in fostering adaptability and resilience.
I hope this helps and all the best with your research 🙂
Warm regards,
Julia | Community Manager
Very good and interesting………….
This is a terrific summary of a complex area. Connect with me on LinkedIn please – I’m writing in this field also.